Mosques of China are still at the periphery of the study of Islamic buildings. Mosque architecture is discussed using examples from the Arab, Persian, South Asian, African, or European world. China and the Chinese world are not considered. However, the Hui Muslim communities (Rong/Günül/Xiaoyan 2016, Frankel 2021, Dillon 1999; Yang 2023) have their own rich architectural tradition.
Sadiq Javer provides a typology of Chinese mosques in general. There are five principal categories of mosques: 1) the historical Chinese mosque with a Chinese architectural style, throughout China, 2) starting with the Ming dynasty mosques with a Central Asian and similar styles appear, 3) starting with the late Qing dynasty until the early People’s republic mosques appear with a mixture of colonial and Chinese styles, showing ‘stereotypical’ such as a dome, especially in areas with a strong western colonial influence in and around Hong Kong and Shanghai, 4) the modern kind of Chinese mosques with a mixture of Chinese architectural and spatial elements and other more elements deemed to be Islamic, and reconstructed mosques in the historical Chinese mosque style, 5) modern mosques “specifically built by foreign entities such as governments or private individuals, with no Chinese influences. These mosques can be found in areas where there has been a large influx of foreign Muslims.” (Javer 2013: 400)
Few studies on mosques of Hui Muslims in China are available. More detailed studies will provide more insights. Nevertheless, an overview of a mosque like the Great Mosque of Xi’an in Shaanxi Province may be helpful for comparative purposes.
The Great Mosque of Xi’an, also known as the Mosque of the Hua Jue Lane[2], is situated only one block away from the Drum Tower near the city center. In this area many non-Chinese were living, the city being the final point at the Silk Roads. It was built in 1392 CE[3] at the beginning of the Ming dynasty and rebuilt three times: 1413 CE, end of the 15th century CE, and middle of the 16th century CE, it was completely reconstructed 1662-1772 CE.
A mosque is not only a place of worship; daily life is present in all parts of the complex.
The site plan of the Great Mosque (entrance from the right) may give an idea of the structure of the complex (cf. Deng/Shen 2012: 31):
“The layout is typical of Chinese courtyard planning, with four courtyards placed in a series along a central axis. The main entrances, which face south and north on the long side of the site, give access to the first courtyard. Each successive courtyard has its centre of attraction, either a pavilion, a pailou[4], or a screen wall, each of these methodically designed, meticulously executed and strictly planned to complement the surroundings.
The principal feature of the mosque is the prayer-hall, dating from the Ming Dynasty. This is a timber structure with seven front bays preceded by a large granite-paved platform known as the Moon platform. The hall, 33 m (108 ft) in width and 38 m (125 ft) in length, occupies — with the mihrab — an overall area of 1,270 sq m (1,420 sq yds); it is in fact made up with two similar structures joined lengthwise. The hall, together with the platform, can accommodate nearly two thousand worshippers. The mihrab features an arch in Central Asian style and a canopy above in Chinese style; the entire mihrab is highly decorated with carvings in calligraphy and foliage exquisitely carved in wood. The roof over the recess is higher than that over the rest of the hall; it is a tower-like umber structure in gabled and hipped form, with a clerestory below the eaves.
Another major building within the complex is the so-called Pavilion for Introspection (Xing Xin Ting) in the third courtyard preceding the prayer-hall. Also dating from the Ming Dynasty, this octagonal pavilion is a spectacular structure consisting of two stories crowned with a triple-eaved pyramidal roof. It served as a minaret in former times.” (Luo 1994: 222)
As in the similar customary structure of Chinese places of worship, the first element is the screen wall at the right side of the site plan, separating the area of the place from the outside. Two entrances on the left and right long sides allow access to the area.
The entrance to the axis of the mosque and its courtyards is marked by the Front Wooden Archway with Chinese inscriptions:
On the outer side, it says that this is a mosque built for Muslims to pray under the rule of the Chinese emperor’s edict. On the inner side it says that the universe and the truth of life is to be understood from the Islamic view of life (dao) (Xiping 2016: 22). Chinese Islamic inscriptions are an interesting sub-field for Islamic Studies, both the context aspect and the epigraphical aspect (cf. Stöcker-Parnian 2011).
The Great Mosque of Xi’an has inscriptions naming the inscribers. Some of them are officials like the assistant minister of personnel and rites or Muslim calligraphers (Xiping 2016: 22), as in the case of this archway.
Also part of the first courtyard is the Five-Room Hall. Its main feature is four couplets hung at the post of this hall. They are written in a combination of Chinese classical calligraphy and Arabic calligraphy, a very interesting writing style merging Chinese and Arabic handwriting. The inscriptions present the 99 names of God.
The second courtyard leads to the third with the minaret in the center, an architectural solution to be found in many Chinese mosques. The minaret, in its very Chinese style, is called the introspection tower:
Finally, in the fourth courtyard the prayer hall is located:
On top of the main entrance to the prayer hall, the basmala is placed. Other Chinese and Arabic inscriptions are to be found at the outer side of the prayer hall, at the inside, most inscriptions are in Arabic, although there are some in Chinese. The Arabic inscriptions are written in a hybrid calligraphic form of Arabic, e.g., in a ‘diamond-shaped’ form that gives a Chinese impression. Most of the texts of the Arabic inscriptions are taken from the Qur’an.
There are also colorful paintings of the layout of the holy shrines of the haram of Mecca. As mentioned above, the prayer niche is another important architectural element, as is the pulpit (minbar). The colorful ceiling is one of the most impressive features of the prayer hall,
“Consisting of the 675 colourful small pieces of board id painted with fine lines of flowers and one of Allah’s 99 great names written in the right middle. They are written by 7 different Arabic calligraphy styles […] The most magnificent part should be the largest board on the back hall’s ceiling. […] Such a colorful dome painting at this size is extremely rare in the mosque within China […]” (Xiping 2016: 105)
Sino-Arabic Inscriptions
An outstanding example of inscriptions is the text of the Qur’an inscribed on wood panels inside the prayer hall, a major decorative element in the Great Mosque in Xi’an and a masterpiece of art of Islam in China (Dilmi 2014: 41). The text (30 parts) is engraved on 30 boards; the upper part in Arabic, the lower part is the Chinese version (Xiping 2016: 128-129).
Steles with Chinese, Arabic, and Persian inscriptions are to be found in the mosque; some of the Persian inscriptions are no longer legible. Islamic inscriptions are often in Arabic script, referring to Islamic texts.
It is said that Persian inscriptions, often found at steles, are more informative than decorative, often telling the history of the mosque and also the history of the Persian-speaking communities. Arabic inscriptions may be simple and informative, but are also ornate and decorative, and relate to Islamic sources.
“As with Arabic calligraphy, Chinese calligraphy too can be found in all areas of the mosque, except deep within the prayer hall and on the mihrab. It can be both decorative and informative. Steles bearing Chinese inscriptions contain information on the foundation of the mosque, the emperor ruling at the time, subsequent refurbishments and renovations of the mosque, wealthy donors marking significant events in their lives, information about the community, and the like. Chinese-language steles often far outnumber those in Arabic and Persian, and they sometimes contain decorative elements at the top similar to the Arabic steles. Chinese- language steles are of three types: those that have Arabic calligraphy at the top, followed by Chinese inscriptions; those that bear pictographic representations and Chinese characters followed by Chinese calligraphy; and those entirely in Chinese calligraphy.” (Javer 2013: 402)
Customarily, there are few or no Chinese inscriptions in the prayer hall. These intersecting linguistic and graphic elements signify a genuine Chinese Islamic environment.
Little Mecca
A phenomenon less known is that Hui mosques in China are called ‚Little Mecca‘ due to a variety of reasons as the problems to actually perform the Hajj to Mecca and a sinicized view of the reverence in Mecca of Islam. As we read about the Great Mosque in Xi’an:
“In Xi’an, the historical mosque of Huajue Lane, known to be one of the earliest mosques in China, even has the old painting of the Grand Mosque in Mecca on the right-side wall of its prayer-hall. Such pictures of the so-called “Mecca” reflected the reverent attitude of Chinese Muslims to Mecca, the esteem they held for the Hajj, one of the five pillars of Islam, and the sense of honor that came with pilgrimage to that site. Nevertheless, among the hearts of Hui Muslims in Xi’an, Mosque of Huajue Lane, or other important mosques such as Mosque of Big Learning Lane were regarded as the holy place or the religious centers in Islam of China, akin to the position of Mecca at the center of the Islamic world.” (Wang 2024: 288)
Especially large mosques served as ‘Little Mecca’ for Chinese Hui Muslim communities. This last remark may be sufficient to finally connect these insights in Chinese Islam and the Great Mosque of Xi’an exemplified by the paintings of the haram of Mecca in the prayer hall of the mosque.
This idea of ‘Little Mecca’ in China may be regarded as one aspect of Sinicizing Islam. The Great Mosque of Xi’an is a prime example of this process of unity (Islam) in diversity (indigenized forms) to be read even from the brick carvings (Deng/Shen 2012). Thus, Islam became Chinese. Hence, it is not surprising that there are elements in the mosque that are definitely Chinese and do not represent mainstream Islamic views.[5]
The so-called Qing Guan Stone that is described as an “official” stone used for forecasting the success of Chinese officials by drive nails into it.[6]
The most astonishing element (at least for conventional Islamic Studies scholars) is the dragons at the top of the roof, also on top of the prayer hall.
Dragons are a symbol for the emperor, thus, protecting the place of worship and a general protector against the weather. This quite aptly symbolizes the integration of Islam in Chinese culture. Other dragons are found in the area of the mosque:
We may conclude our presentation of the Great Mosque of Xi’an by a quotation:
“[…] like all other mosques across the world, the Great Mosque of Xi‘an is a place of – togetherness – it is a mixed-use facility to create a sense of Muslim community and to support diverse needs of local Muslim population. Its five courtyards divide the whole complex into five smaller spatial units, each of which is relatively independent while well connected by courtyards. This relatively independence of space makes it possible to borrow different building forms from the Chinese society and place them together into one building complex. Each built form represents a type of spatial use that becomes easily recognized by local people. With the flexibility offered by different courtyards, the mosque becomes the place where Muslims not only pray together but also study together, live together, and play together. Through playing as an active spatial agent of defining, separating and togethering, courtyards make the Chinese and Islamic architecture finally converge together.” (Alajmi/Hu: 14)
Thus, the Great Mosque of Xi’an is an example of crossing, dwelling, and homemaking of Islam in China (Tweed 2006). The convergence is described otherwise in a comparative way:
“The convergence of Chinese and Islamic architectural features is remarkable, but more impressive is that the Chinese elements are those of China’s most eminent architectural tradition. The wooden pailou and screen walls, for example, have counter-parts at the Confucian Temple in Qufu and the Qing imperial tombs […] The hexagonal pavilion has a counterpart from the post-Ming period behind the Hall of Virtuous Tranquility at the Temple to the Northern Peak, where the emperor or his surrogate performed imperial rites […]. The plan recalls China’s most distinguished religious complexes, from the long, narrow Longxing Monastery in Zhengding, Hebei, to the nine-courtyard Confucian Temple […]. Longxingsi was constructed by imperial patronage in the Song dynasty, and Qufu was a place the emperor himself came to worship.” (Steinhardt 2008: 348)
Footnotes
[1] All pictures by the author. This article is the result of seberal field visits to the mosque starting in 2019.
[2] Thanks to Dr. Zhao Na for guiding me to the mosque.
[3] The official date of 742 CE seems to be incorrect.
[4] “The pailou served as a threshold. It marked where the outside world ended and where the structured, meaningful space of human society began. It stood as both boundary and invitation. In the Confucian and Daoist view of ordered space, such thresholds were essential to maintain harmony.” (https://archinatour.com/pailou/) (last accessed May 6, 2026).
[5] We are not claiming they are unislamic. They are just part of the diversity of Islam.
[6] According to the description in the mosque.
Literature
Alajmi, Mohammed/Hu, Xiaoping, “Convergence to Courtyards: Spatial Identity and Meanings in Xi’an’s Great Mosque,” Journal of Engg. Research, ICMA Special Issue: 1-15
Del Medico, Candice, “Traditional Hui Mosques in Northern China,” in ERCCS Research Notes No. 1 (2017)
Deng, Xiaoshan/Chen, Shijun, “Explorations on Characteristics and Reasons of the Chinesization of Islamic Architectural Decoration Symbol: The Example of Great Mosque in Xi’an,” Interior Design 5 (2012): 30-35.
Dillon, Matt, China’s Muslim Hui Community: Migration, Settlements and Sects, Richmond: Curzon Press, 1999
Dilmi, Djamel, “Sino-Arabic Script and Architectural Inscriptions in Xi’an Great Mosque, China.” Journal of Islamic Architecture 3(1) (2014): 39-48.
Frankel, James D., Islam in China, London/New York/Dublin: I. B. Tauris/Bloomsbury, 2021
Javer, Sadiq, “Space and Calligraphy in the Chinese Mosque.” in Calligraphy and Architecture in the Muslim World, ed. by Mohammad Gharipour and Irwin Cemil Schick, Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2013: 400-415.
Luo, Xiaowei, “China,” in The Mosque: History, Architectural Development & Regional Diversity, ed. by Martin Fridhman and Hasan-Uddin Khan, London: Thames & Hudson, 1994:209-224.
Rong, Gui/Gönül, Hacer Zekiye/Xiaoyan, Zhang (eds.), Hui Muslims in China, Leuven: Leuven University Press, 2016
Steinhardt, Nancy Shatzman, “China’s Earliest Mosques,” Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians , 67 (3) (2008): 330-361
Stöcker-Parnian, Barbara, “Islamic Inscriptions on Stone Monuments in China,” Tarih Dergisi 51 (2011): 21-45.
Tweed, Thomas A., Crossing and Dwelling: A Theory of Religion, Cambridge, Mass./London: Harvard University Pres, 2006
Wang, Jiangping, “’Little Mecca’ in China: Religious central places of the Hui Muslims,” Journal of Contemporary East Asia Studies, 13:2 (2024), 285-302, DOI: 10.1080/24761028.2025.2459968.
Xiping, Haji Jia. Translation & Explanation on the Inscribed Boards and Couplets Inherited from past Chinese Dynasties inside China: Xi’an Great Mosque, Xian: Chinese Xi’an Great Mosque Heritage Relics & Documents Preservation and Compilation Committee, 2016
Yang, Yang, “Fashioning Islamic Asia: Urban Hui Muslims and Cosmopolitan Bridal Looks in Xi’an, China,” Islam in Asia 4 (2023): 178-205
Photocredits: (C) Rüdiger Lohlker
RaT-Blog Nr. 07/2026